Each table has a primary heap disk file where most of the data is stored. If the table has any columns with potentially-wide values, there also might be a TOAST file associated with the table, which is used to store values too wide to fit comfortably in the main table (see Section 65.2). There will be one valid index on the TOAST table, if present. There also might be indexes associated with the base table. Each table and index is stored in a separate disk file — possibly more than one file, if

The money type stores a currency amount with a fixed fractional precision; see Table 8-3. The fractional precision is determined by the database's lc_monetary setting. The range shown in the table assumes there are two fractional digits. Input is accepted in a variety of formats, including integer and floating-point literals, as well as typical currency formatting, such as '$1,000.00'. Output is generally in the latter form but depends on the locale. Table 8-3. Monetary Types Name Storage Siz

When you create a table and you realize that you made a mistake, or the requirements of the application change, you can drop the table and create it again. But this is not a convenient option if the table is already filled with data, or if the table is referenced by other database objects (for instance a foreign key constraint). Therefore PostgreSQL provides a family of commands to make modifications to existing tables. Note that this is conceptually distinct from altering the data contained in

Mathematical operators are provided for many PostgreSQL types. For types without standard mathematical conventions (e.g., date/time types) we describe the actual behavior in subsequent sections. Table 9-4 shows the available mathematical operators. Table 9-4. Mathematical Operators Operator Description Example Result + addition 2 + 3 5 - subtraction 2 - 3 -1 * multiplication 2 * 3 6 / division (integer division truncates the result) 4 / 2 2 % modulo (remainder) 5 % 4 1 ^ exponentiation (assoc

PostgreSQL can sometimes exhaust various operating system resource limits, especially when multiple copies of the server are running on the same system, or in very large installations. This section explains the kernel resources used by PostgreSQL and the steps you can take to resolve problems related to kernel resource consumption. 18.4.1. Shared Memory and Semaphores Shared memory and semaphores are collectively referred to as "System V IPC" (together with message queues, which are not releva

A database is a named collection of SQL objects ("database objects"). Generally, every database object (tables, functions, etc.) belongs to one and only one database. (However there are a few system catalogs, for example pg_database, that belong to a whole cluster and are accessible from each database within the cluster.) More accurately, a database is a collection of schemas and the schemas contain the tables, functions, etc. So the full hierarchy is: server, database, schema, table (or some o

This module implements a data type ltree for representing labels of data stored in a hierarchical tree-like structure. Extensive facilities for searching through label trees are provided. F.21.1. Definitions A label is a sequence of alphanumeric characters and underscores (for example, in C locale the characters A-Za-z0-9_ are allowed). Labels must be less than 256 bytes long. Examples: 42, Personal_Services A label path is a sequence of zero or more labels separated by dots, for example L1.L2

The usual logical operators are available: AND OR NOT SQL uses a three-valued logic system with true, false, and null, which represents "unknown". Observe the following truth tables: a b a AND b a OR b TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE NULL NULL TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE NULL FALSE NULL NULL NULL NULL NULL a NOT a TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE NULL NULL The operators AND and OR are commutative, that is, you can switch the left and right operand without affecting the

Continuous archiving can be used to create a high availability (HA) cluster configuration with one or more standby servers ready to take over operations if the primary server fails. This capability is widely referred to as warm standby or log shipping. The primary and standby server work together to provide this capability, though the servers are only loosely coupled. The primary server operates in continuous archiving mode, while each standby server operates in continuous recovery mode, readin

It is a good idea to save the database server's log output somewhere, rather than just discarding it via /dev/null. The log output is invaluable when diagnosing problems. However, the log output tends to be voluminous (especially at higher debug levels) so you won't want to save it indefinitely. You need to rotate the log files so that new log files are started and old ones removed after a reasonable period of time. If you simply direct the stderr of postgres into a file, you will have log outp